Cancer, crab
　The term cancer comes from the Latin word meaning crab. Cancer was characterized as a crablike disease by the Greek physician Hippocrates, who observed that cancers spread throughout the body, eventually cutting off life. Now cancer generally is defined as the unregulated growth of specific cells in the body. The word cancer actually refers to over 100 different diseases, but in all cases, certain body cells multiply in an abnormal, unregulated manner.
　Normally, the growth and reproduction of every cell in the body are regulated. This regulation, in turn, determines the size and functions of tissues and organs. If a normal body cell begins to grow abnormally and reproduces too rapidly, a mass of abnormal cells eventually develops called a tumor. A tumor generally contains millions of genetically identical abnormal cells before it can be detected or felt.
　Cancers are medically classified according to the organ or kind of tissue in which the tumor originates. The four major categories of cancers are carcinomas, sarcomas, leukemias, and lymphomas. Within these major categories are numerous subgroups that generally describe the organ in which the cancer originates.

Carcinoma
　A carcinoma is a malignant new growth that arises from epithelium, found in skin or, more commonly, the lining of body organs, for example: breast, prostate, lung, stomach or bowel. Carcinomas tend to infiltrate into adjacent tissue and spread (metastasize) to distant organs, for example: to bone, liver, lung or the brain.

Sarcoma
　Sarcoma is a form of cancer that arises in the supportive tissues such as bone, cartilage, fat or muscle.

Leukemia
　Leukemia is an acute or chronic disease of unknown cause in man and other warm blooded animals that involves the blood forming organs, is characterized by an abnormal increase in the number of leucocytes in the tissues of the body with or without a corresponding increase of those in the circulating blood and is classified according of the type of leukocyte most prominently involved.

Lymphoma
　A lymphoma is a malignant tumor of lymphoblasts derived from B lymphocytes. most commonly affects children in tropical Africa.

Tumor
　A tumor is an abnormal mass of tissue. Tumors are a classic sign of inflammation, and can be benign or malignant (cancerous). If the cells of the tumor remain localized at the site of origin in the body and if they multiply relatively slowly, the tumor is said to be benign. Benign tumors, warts, moles, and polyps, do not spread to other parts of the body. Malignant tumors are composed of cells that grow rapidly, have other abnormal properties that distinguish them from normal cells, and invade other normal tissues. In particular, malignant cells may have altered shapes and cell-surface characteristics that contribute to their rapid proliferation. Many malignant cells also have abnormal chromosomes or altered genes, and they manufacture abnormal proteins. The numerous altered properties of malignant cells enable a pathologist, who is a physician who specializes in the causes of diseases, to determine whether the cells removed from a tumor are abnormal and to what degree.
　There are dozens of different types of tumors. Their names usually reflect the kind of tissue they arise in, and may also tell you something about their shape or how they grow. Diagnosis depends on the type and location of the tumor. Tumor marker tests and imaging may be used; some tumors can be seen (for example, tumors on the exterior of the skin) or felt (palpated with the hands).
　Treatment is also specific to the location and type of the tumor. Benign tumors can sometimes simply be ignored because generally are not a threat to life, or they may be reduced in size (debulked) or removed entirely via surgery. In fact, benign tumors weighing several hundred pounds have been surgically removed from persons who then recovered fully. Benign tumors cannot re-grow if all of the abnormal cells are removed by surgical excision of the tumor. For cancerous tumors, options include chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery.

Apoptosis
　The apoptosis is a form of cell death in which a programmed sequence of events leads to the elimination of cells without releasing harmful substances into the surrounding area. Apoptosis plays a crucial role in developing and maintaining health by eliminating old cells, unnecessary cells, and unhealthy cells. The human body replaces perhaps a million cells a second. Too little or too much apoptosis plays a role in a great many diseases. When programmed cell death does not work right, cells that should be eliminated may hang around and become immortal. For example, in cancer and leukemia. When apoptosis works overly well, it kills too many cells and inflicts grave tissue damage. This is the case in disorders such as Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. Apoptosis is also called programmed cell death or cell suicide. Strictly speaking, the term apoptosis refers only to the structural changes cells go through, and programmed cell death refers to the complete underlying process, but the terms are often used interchangeably.

Metastasis
　The ancient Greeks used the word metastasis to mean "removal from one place to another." The metastasis is a process in which cells detach from the original tumor, enter the lymphatic system and bloodstream, and are carried to other organs. Once the malignant cells spread to other organs, they develop into new tumors that often grow more rapidly than cells in the original tumor. Metastases and the growth of new tumors in many organs of the body eventually disrupt a vital body function, which can cause death.

Metastatic
　Spread of a disease from the organ or tissue of origin to another part of the body.
Systemic
Pertaining to or affecting the body as a whole.

Squamous cell carcinoma
　A squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that begins in squamous cells (thin, flat cells that look under the microscope like fish scales). Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Squamous cell carcinomas may arise in any of these tissues. The word "squamous" came from the Latin squama meaning "the scale of a fish or serpent."

Lung cancer
　Cancer of the lung, like all cancers, results from an abnormality in the body’s basic unit of life, the cell. Normally, the body maintains a system of checks and balances on cell growth so that cells divide to produce new cells only when needed. Disruption of this system of checks and balances on cell growth results in an uncontrolled division and proliferation of cells that eventually forms a mass known as a tumor. Since lung cancer tends to spread, or metastasize, very early in its course, it is a very life-threatening cancer and one of the most difficult cancers to treat. While lung cancer can spread to any organ in the body, certain organs – particularly the adrenal glands, liver, brain, and bone - are the most common sites for lung cancer metastasis.The lung is also a very common site for metastasis from tumors in other parts of the body. Tumor metastases are made up of the same type of cells as the original, or primary, tumor. For example, if prostate cancer spreads via the bloodstream to the lungs, it is metastatic prostate cancer in the lung and is not lung cancer.
　The principal function of the lungs is the exchange of gases between the air we breathe and the blood. Through the lung, carbon dioxide is removed from the body and oxygen from inspired air enters the bloodstream. The right lung has three lobes while the left lung is divided into two lobes and a small structure called the lingula that is the equivalent of the middle lobe. The major airways entering the lungs are the bronchi, which arise from the trachea. The bronchi branch into progressively smaller airways called bronchioles that end in tiny sacs known as alveoli, where gas exchange occurs. The lungs and chest wall are covered with a thin layer of tissue called the pleura.
　Lung cancers can arise in any part of the lung. Ninety to 95% of cancers of the lung are thought to arise from the epithelial, or lining cells of the larger and smaller airways (bronchi and bronchioles); for this reason lung cancers are sometimes called bronchogenic carcinomas. Cancers can also arise from the pleura (the thin layer of tissue that surrounds the lungs), called mesotheliomas, or rarely from supporting tissues within the lungs, for example, blood vessels.
Heed and Neck Cancer
　The Head and neck cancer consists in the common carcinomas of the oral cavity, pharynx, and larynx as well as other tumors that affect the head and neck. These include: paranasal sinus and nasal cavity cancer, l and oral cavity cancer, nasopharyngeal cancer, oropharyngeal cancer , hypopharyngeal cancer , laryngeal cancer , salivary gland cancer, parathyroid cancer, thyroid cancer . There are also metastatic head and neck cancers in which the primary tumor where the cancer originated may or may not be known.

Hepatocellular carcinoma, adult primary liver cancer
　Hepatocellular carcinoma is a tumor in which the cancer starts during adulthood in cells in the liver. Primary liver cancer is different from cancer that has metastasized (spread) from another place in the body to the liver. The signs and symptoms may include a hard lump just below the rib cage on the right side (from swelling of the liver), discomfort in the upper abdomen on the right side, pain around the right shoulder blade, or yellowing of the skin (jaundice). There is often an increase in the blood levels of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). A rapid deterioration of liver function may be the only clue to the presence of the tumor. Hepatocellular carcinoma is potentially curable by surgery, but surgery is the treatment of choice for only a small fraction of patients who have localized disease. Therapy other than surgery is best as part of a clinical trial. Such trials evaluate the efficacy of systemic or infusional chemotherapy, hepatic artery ligation or embolization, percutaneous ethanol (alcohol) injection, radiofrequency ablation, cryotherapy (freezing the tumor), and radiolabeled antibodies, often in conjunction with surgical resection (removal) and/or radiation therapy. The prognosis (outlook) depends on the degree of local tumor replacement and the extent of liver function impairment. Primary liver cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma) is the most common cancer in some parts of the world. Its incidence is rising, principally in relation to the spread of hepatitis B and hepatitis C. People who have a disease of the liver called cirrhosis are also more likely to get adult primary liver cancer. Hepatitis B and C appear to be the most significant causes of hepatocellular carcinoma worldwide. People who have both hepatitis B and hepatitis C may be at a higher risk if they consume more than 3 oz. (80 grams) of alcohol a day. A first-degree relative with hepatocellular carcinoma also increases the risk. Hepatocellular carcinoma is associated with cirrhosis in 50% to 80% of patients; 5% of cirrhotic patients eventually develop hepatocellular cancer. Aflatoxin has also been implicated as a factor in the etiology (causation) of primary liver cancer in parts of the world where this mycotoxin occurs in high levels in food. Workers exposed to vinyl chloride before controls on vinyl chloride dust were instituted developed sarcomas in the liver.

Bone marrow
　The bone marrow is a soft, spongy tissue found in the centre of most large bones that produces the cellular components of blood: white cells, red cells and platelets. It is also the most radiation sensitive tissue of the body.

Vocabulary related to Virus
Virus
　Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites of living but non-cellular nature, consisting of DNA or RNA and a protein coat. They range in diameter from 20-300nm. The majority of viruses are recognized by the diseases they cause in plants, animals and prokaryotes. Viruses of prokaryotes are known as bacteriophages.

Adenovirus
　An icosahedral (20-sided) virus that contains DNA, there are over 40 different adenovirus varieties, some of which cause the common cold.

Cytomegalovirus
　The cytomegalovirus is probably the most widespread of the Herpetoviridae group. Infected cells enlarge and have a characteristic inclusion body (composed of virus particles) in the nucleus. Causes disease only in utero (leading to abortion or stillbirth or to various congenital defects), although can be opportunistic in the immunocompromised host. Patients who have been exposed to the virus will remain cytomegalovirus IgG positive.

Replication
　Replication is the process of duplicating or reproducing.

Viral
　Pertaining to, caused by or of the nature of virus

Synthesis
　The artificial building up of a chemical compound, by the union of its elements or from other suitable starting materials

Vocabulary related to the cell
Nucleus
　The major organelle of eukaryotic cells, in which the chromosomes are separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope.

Eukaryote, eukaryotic cell
　An eukaryote is an organism whose cells have chromosomes with a special structure and separated from the cytoplasm by a two membrane nuclear envelope and compartmentalization of a function in distinct cytoplasmic organelles.

Prokaryote, prokaryotic cell
　A prokaryote is a unicellular organism lacking a nuclear membrane, a discrete nucleus, and other specialized compartments within the cell. Bacteria and viruses are prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that do not develop or differentiate into multicellular forms. Some bacteria grow in filaments, or masses of cells, but each cell in the colony is identical and capable of independent existence. The cells may be adjacent to one another because they did not separate after cell division or because they remained enclosed in a common sheath or slime secreted by the cells. Typically though, there is no continuity or communication between the cells. Prokaryotes are capable of inhabiting almost every place on the earth, from the deep ocean, to the edges of hot springs, to just about every surface of our bodies. Prokaryotes are distinguished from eukaryote on the basis of nuclear organization, specifically their lack of a nuclear membrane. Prokaryotes also lack any of the intracellular organelles and structures that are characteristic of eukaryotic cells.

Organelle
　The organelle is a structurally discrete component of a cell.

Cytoplasm
　The cytoplasm consist in the all of the substance of a cell outside of the nucleus. The cytoplasm contains a number of different types organelles such as the mitochondria.

Protoplasm
　The protoplasm is the entire contents of a live cell

Vocabulary related to blood
Red blood cell
　The red blood cells are cells that supply oxygen to tissues throughout the body. They are biconcave, 7nm diameter in mammals.

White blood cell, leucocytes, lymphocytes
　The white blood cells are the blood cells that fight infections and other diseases. They are spherical, colorless.

Platelets
　A platelet is a particle found in the bloodstream that binds to fibrinogen at the site of a wound to begin the blood clotting process. Platelets are formed in bone marrow.

Serum
　The serum is the clear liquid that can be separated from clotted blood. Serum differs from plasma, the liquid portion of normal unclotted blood containing the red and white cells and platelets. It is the clot that makes the difference between serum and plasma.

Bloodstream
　The bloodstream is the flowing blood as it is encountered in the circulatory system as distinguished from blood that has been removed from the circulatory system or sequestered in a part; thus, something added to the bloodstream may be expected to become distributed to all parts of the body through which blood is flowing.

Vocabulary related to the proteins
Protein
　Any of a group of complex organic compounds which contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and usually sulphur, the characteristic element being nitrogen and which are widely distributed in plants and animals. Proteins, the principal constituents of the protoplasm of all cells, are of high molecular weight and consist essentially of combinations of a amino acids in peptide linkages. Twenty different amino acids are commonly found in proteins and each protein has a unique, genetically defined amino acid sequence which determines its specific shape and function. They serve as enzymes, structural elements, hormones, immunoglobulins, etc. And are involved in oxygen transport, muscle contraction, electron transport and other activities throughout the body and in photosynthesis.

Amino-acid
　An amino-acid is a class of organic molecules that containing an amino group and can combine in linear arrays to form proteins in living organisms.

Peptide
　A peptide is a compound of two or more amino acids where the alpha carboxyl group of one is bound to the alpha amino group of another.

HSP, Heat Shock Protein
　Families of proteins conserved through prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and bacteria in response to hyperthermia and other environmental stresses, although some are constitutively expressed. They increase thermal tolerance and perform functions essential to cell survival under these conditions. Some serve to stabilize proteins in abnormal configurations, play a role in folding and unfolding of proteins and the assembly of oligomeric complexes and may act as chaperones. Hsp90 complexes with inactive steroid hormone receptor and is displaced upon ligand binding. Four major sub classes are recognized: hsp90, hsp70, hsp60 and small hsps.

HSP70
　Widely distributed group of conserved heat-shock proteins of average weight 70kD. Possess ATP binding domains and may be involved in protein folding or export

AFP, Alfa feto-protein
　The AFP is a protein substance that is normally produced by the liver cells. It can appear in the adult serum during certain pathologic states. Measurement of the alpha-fetoprotein level in the bloodstream has been used as a early detection test for some forms of cancer (hepatocellular carcinoma). The level produced by liver tumors (hepatomas), germ cell tumors (teratocarcinoma and embryonic cell carcinomas) permits the monitoring of response to treatment of these tumors.

Vocabulary related to genetics
Gene
　A gene is a detectable genetic trait or segment of DNA that can be identified and tracked. A marker gene can serve as a flag for another gene, sometimes called the target gene. A marker gene must be on the same chromosome as the target gene and near enough to it so that the two genes (the marker gene and the target gene) are genetically linked and are usually inherited together.

Genome
　The total set of genes carried by an individual or cell

Chromosome
　Threadlike bodies found in the nucleus, or center part, of a cell that carry DNA, the information of heredity. The DNA of eukaryotes is subdivided into chromosomes, that consist of a number of chromosomes whose DNA is associated with various proteins. The chromosomes become more tightly packed at mitosis and become aligned on the metaphase plate. Each chromosome has a characteristic length and banding pattern. In prokaryotes, chromosomal DNA is circular, and the entire genome is carried on one chromosome.

DNA
　The DNA is the molecule that encodes genetic information in the nucleus of cells. It determines the structure, function and behaviour of the cell. DNA is a double-stranded molecule held together by weak bonds between base pairs of nucleotides. The four nucleotides in DNA contain the bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).

P53
　The P53 is a gene which encodes a protein that regulates cell growth and is able to cause potentially cancerous cells to destroy themselves.

Genetically engineered , genetically modified
　The genetic engineering is a general term covering the use of various experimental techniques to produce molecules of DNA containing new genes or novel combinations of genes, usually for insertion into a host cell for cloning.

Chemotherapy
　Chemotherapy is the treatment of cancer with drugs that can destroy cancer cells. These drugs often are called "anticancer" drugs. This is a treatment of disease by means of chemicals that have a specific toxic effect or that destroy cancerous tissue (anticancer therapy).

Immunotherapy, biological therapy, biotherapy
　Immunotherapy therapy, a more recent approach to the treatment of cancer, holds considerable promise. It utilizes the body's immune system to fight the cancer and/or to protect it from some of the side effects of other treatments. Tumor cells from the patient are inactivated and then injected into a laboratory animal, where they stimulate the production of specific antibodies to the cancer. These antibodies are then removed from the animal and injected into the patient, in whom they make a beeline directly for the tumor, attacking it and sparing healthy tissue. These antibodies can also be attached to chemotherapy drugs and other antitumor agents, which selectively search out the tumor. In a biological therapy, patients are given various natural substances such as interferon, interleukin 2, and several types of colony-stimulating factors, all of which enhance the body's own defenses. The side effects of biological therapy depend on the type of treatment.

Immune system
　The immune system is a complex system that is responsible for distinguishing us from everything foreign to us, and for protecting us against infections and foreign substances. The immune system works to seek and kill invaders. A key part of the immune system's role is to differentiate between invaders and the body's own cells.

Radiotherapy, radiation therapy
　The radiation therapy is a cancer treatment that uses radiation (high-energy rays). It may be an option, either when surgery is not feasible or when the surgeon isn't able to remove the tumor completely. However, it may be the first choice when the cancer is localized and its cells are radiosensitive, as, for example, in prostate cancer. The high-energy rays destroy the cancer cells, or damage them so that they stop growing and dividing. Radiation is delivered either externally or internally from an implant, in which case a small radioactive container is placed directly into or near the tumor. External radiation is usually administered on an outpatient basis five days a week for several weeks. It doesn't leave you radioactive; you can't spread the rays to those near you. Internal radiation therapy, on the other hand, requires an operation in order to implant the radioactive receptacle. Implants may be permanent or removed after a certain period of time.

CSF, Colony Stimulating Factor
　The Colony Stimulating Factor substances that stimulate the production of blood cells. Treatment with colony-stimulating factors (CSF) can help the blood-forming tissue recover from the effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy. These include granulocyte colony-stimulating factors (G-CSF) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factors (GM-CSF).

Onyx-015
　Onyx-015 is developed by ONYX Pharmaceuticals in the United States. Onyx-015 is a conditionally replicating adenovirus with E1B-55KD gene deletion, enabling the selective replication in tumor cells . It is the most explored oncolytic virus in clinical trial of treating tumor especially head & neck cancer.

Side effects
　Side effects are any undesired actions or effects of a drug or treatment. Negative or adverse effects may include headache, nausea, hair loss, skin irritation, or other physical problems. Experimental drugs must be evaluated for both immediate and long-term side effects. For example: hair loss may be a side effect of chemotherapy, fatigue may be a side effect of radiation therapy.

Toxicity
　Toxicity is an adverse effect produced by a drug that is detrimental to the patient's health. The level of toxicity associated with a drug will vary depending on the condition that the drug is used to treat.

Cytotoxic
　Chemicals that are directly toxic to cells, preventing their reproduction or growth. Cytotoxic agents can, as a side effect, damage healthy, non-cancerous tissues or organs which have a high proportion of actively dividing cells, for example, bone marrow. These side effects limit the amount and frequency of drug administration

Myelotoxic
　A myelotoxic is a compound that is toxic or destroy the bone marrow.

Hepatotoxic
　An hepatotoxic is a compound that is toxic to liver cells.

Nausea
　Nausea is an unpleasant sensation, vaguely referred to abdomen and often culminating in vomiting.

Anemia
　Anemia is the fact of having too few red blood cells. The symptoms of anemia include feeling tired, weak, and short of breath

Blood cell count
　The blood cell count is the number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in a sample of blood. This is also called complete blood count (CBC).

Neutropenia
　Neutropenia is a reduction of the number of leucocytes in the blood chiefly in neutrophils (a particular type of leucocytes).

Clinical trials
　Clinical trials are studies that test new medical treatments. Clinical trials are conducted with volunteers and concentrate on one of the following aspects of cancer: preventing cancer, treating cancer, or improving the quality of life of patients with cancer. A clinical trial is a research study to answer specific questions about new therapies or new ways of using known treatments. Clinical trials are used to determine whether new drugs or treatments are both safe and effective. Carefully conducted clinical trials are the fastest and safest way to find treatments that work in people. Trials are in four phases: Phase I tests a new drug or treatment in a small group; Phase II expands the study to a larger group of people; Phase III expands the study to an even larger group of people; and Phase IV takes place after the drug or treatment has been licensed and marketed.

Phase I
　The Phase I consists in initial studies to determine the metabolism and pharmacologic actions of drugs in humans, the side effects associated with increasing doses, and to gain early evidence of effectiveness; may include healthy participants and/or patients.

Phase II
　The Phase II consists in single-arm or controlled clinical studies conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the drug for a particular indication or indications in patients with the disease or condition under study and to determine the common short-term side effects and risks.

Phase III
　The Phase III consist in expanded controlled and uncontrolled trials after preliminary evidence suggesting effectiveness of the drug has been obtained, intended to gather additional information to evaluate the overall benefit-risk relationship of the drug and provide an adequate basis for physician labeling.

Phase IV
　The Phase IV consists in post-marketing studies to delineate additional information including the drug's risks, benefits, and optimal use.

Preclinical
　It refers to the testing of experimental drugs in the test tube or in animals - the testing that occurs before trials in humans may be carried out.

Injection
　Using a syringe and needle to push fluids or drugs into the body; often called a "shot."

Regimen
　Regimen means administration.

Dose
　A quantity to be administered at one time, such as a specified amount of medication.

Efficacy (of a drug or a treatment)
　The maximum ability of a drug or treatment to produce a result. A drug passes efficacy trials if it is effective at the dose tested and against the illness for which it is prescribed. In the procedure mandated by the FDA, Phase II clinical trials gauge efficacy, and Phase III trials confirm it.

Control group
　A control group is the standard by which experimental observations are evaluated. In many clinical trials, one group of patients will be given an experimental drug or treatment, while the control group is given either a standard treatment for the illness or a placebo.

Randomization
　Randomization is a method based on chance by which study participants are assigned to a treatment group. Randomization minimizes the differences among groups by equally distributing people with particular characteristics among all the trial arms. The researchers do not know which treatment is better. From what is known at the time, any one of the treatments chosen could be of benefit to the participant.

Randomized trial
　A randomized trial is a study in which participants are randomly (i.e., by chance) assigned to one of two or more treatment arms of a clinical trial. Occasionally placebos are used.

Informed consent document
　The informed consent is a document that describes the rights of the study participants, and includes details about the study, such as its purpose, duration, required procedures, and key contacts. Risks and potential benefits are explained in the informed consent document. The participant then decides whether or not to sign the document. Informed consent is not a contract, and the participant may withdraw from the trial at any time.

Peer review
　The peer review is the review of a clinical trial by experts chosen by the study sponsor. These experts review the trials for scientific merit, participant safety, and ethical considerations.

SFDA
　The SFDA is the Sate Food and Drug Administration of the P.R. of China. For more information: http://www.sfda.gov.cn/eng/.